Friday, November 29, 2019

The Rayl

Section 13.3 of Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology discusses acoustic impedance. For an ultrasonic wave the acoustic impedance is the pressure divided by the tissue velocity, so it has units of Pa/(m/s). In terms of kilograms, meters, and seconds, the units of acoustic impedance are kg/(m2 s).

Acoustic impedance is analogous to electrical impedance. Voltage over current is like pressure over velocity. Electromagnetic waves propagating through a transmission line reflect when the electrical impedance changes, just as ultrasonic waves propagating through tissue reflect when the acoustic impedance changes. The unit for electrical impedance is the ohm, and the unit for acoustic impedance is the…

Wait! What is the name of the unit for acoustic impedance? According to IPMB the units of acoustic impedance are kg/(m2 s). It has no name. The newton is a kg m/s2, the joule is a kg m2/s2, the pascal is a kg/(m s2), and the watt is a kg m2/s3. Why is there no name for the kg/(m2 s)?

There is a name. A kg/(m2 s) is called a rayl. It’s pronounced “rail.” I quote the last lines of Section 13.3.1 in IPMB, but using the rayl.
The quantity Z = ρ0c = √ρ0 κ is called the acoustic impedance of the medium [ρ0 is the density, c is the speed of sound, and κ is the compressibility]. The acoustic impedance of water is about (103 kg m-3)(1400 m s-1) = 1.4 × 106 rayl, or 1.4 Mrayl. The acoustic impedance of air is about 400 rayl, so Zair is much less than Zwater (Denny 1993).
The rayl is also the name for a g/(cm2 s). But the rayl in the meter-kilogram-second system of units isn’t the same as the rayl in the centimeter-gram-second system. A CGS rayl is equal to ten MKS rayls. Maybe all this confusion is why no one uses the rayl (including IPMB). My vote is to abolish the CGS rayl. Erase it from history. Make it taboo. Let’s restrict the use of the term rayl to the MKS rayl.

Theory of Sound, by Lord Rayleigh, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
The Theory of Sound,
by Lord Rayleigh.
The unit is named after John William Strutt, better known as Lord Rayleigh (pronounced ray-lee). He is known for Rayleigh waves, Rayleigh scattering, Rayleigh-Benard convection, the Rayleigh criterion, the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, the Rayleigh-Ritz method, and the Rayleigh-Jeans law. His influential textbook The Theory of Sound makes him the logical choice for the unit of acoustic impedance. He won the Nobel Prize in 1904 “for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies.”

Below are excerpts from Rayleigh’s Nobel biography.
John William Strutt, third Baron Rayleigh, was born on November 12, 1842 at Langford Grove, Maldon, Essex

Throughout his infancy and youth he was of frail physique; his education was repeatedly interrupted by ill-health, and his prospects of attaining maturity appeared precarious. After a short spell at Eton at the age of 10, mainly spent in the school sanatorium, three years in a private school at Wimbledon, and another short stay at Harrow, he finally spent four years with the Rev. George Townsend Warner (1857) who took pupils at Torquay.

In 1861 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he commenced reading mathematics, not at first equal in attainments to the best of his contemporaries, but his exceptional abilities soon enabled him to overtake his competitors. He graduated in the Mathematical Tripos in 1865 as Senior Wrangler and Smith’s Prizeman. In 1866 he obtained a fellowship at Trinity which he held until 1871, the year of his marriage.

A severe attack of rheumatic fever in 1872 made him spend the winter in Egypt and Greece. Shortly after his return his father died (1873) and he succeeded to the barony, taking up residence in the family seat, Terling Place, at Witham, Essex… In 1876 he left the entire management of the land to his younger brother.

From then on, he could devote his full time to science again. In 1879 he was appointed to follow James Clerk Maxwell as Professor of Experimental Physics and Head of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge. In 1884 he left Cambridge to continue his experimental work at his country seat at Terling, Essex, and from 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, being successor of Tyndall

Lord Rayleigh’s first researches were mainly mathematical, concerning optics and vibrating systems, but his later work ranged over almost the whole field of physics, covering sound, wave theory, colour vision, electrodynamics, electromagnetism, light scattering, flow of liquids, hydrodynamics, density of gases, viscosity, capillarity, elasticity, and photography… His Theory of Sound was published in two volumes during 1877-1878, and his other extensive studies are reported in his Scientific Papers – six volumes issued during 1889-1920…

He had a fine sense of literary style; every paper he wrote, even on the most abstruse subject, is a model of clearness and simplicity of diction. The 446 papers reprinted in his collected works clearly show his capacity for understanding everything just a little more deeply than anyone else…

Lord Rayleigh… was a Fellow of the Royal Society (1873) and served as Secretary from 1885 to 1896, and as President from 1905 to 1908. He was an original recipient of the Order of Merit (1902), and in 1905 he was made a Privy Councillor. He was awarded the Copley, Royal, and Rumford Medals of the Royal Society, and the Nobel Prize for 1904…

Lord Rayleigh died on June 30, 1919, at Witham, Essex.
Rayleigh has always been a hero of mine. The breadth of his contributions, the quality of his writing, the ability to excel at both theory and experiment, and the service he contributed to his profession amaze me. I’m glad Russ Hobbie and I discuss some of his contributions in Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.

John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919).
John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919).




Lord Rayleigh by Peter Wells, Cardiff University

Friday, November 22, 2019

Pocket Ultrasound

The November 4, 2019 issue of TIME magazine, about health innovation, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
The November 4, 2019 issue of
TIME magazine, about health innovation.

For decades I’ve been a loyal subscriber to TIME magazine. I read it—more or less cover-to-cover—every week. Most issues have little overlap with Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, but the November 4, 2019 issue is an exception; it focuses on health innovation.

My favorite of the featured innovators is Jonathan Rothberg, who’s developed a handheld ultrasound imager. His device looks like an electric shaver and would fit in your pocket. Don Steinberg writes in TIME 
Jonathan Rothberg, a Yale genetics researcher and serial entrepreneur, figured out how to put ultrasound technology on a chip, so instead of a $100,000 machine in a hospital, it’s a $2,000 go-anywhere gadget that connects to an iPhone app.
On his website, Rothberg says his aim is to make healthcare accessible to everyone around the world. A noble goal, but what’s unique about the physics of Rothberg’s invention? In Chapter 13 of Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, Russ Hobbie and I discuss traditional ultrasound transducers.
Ultrasound is typically produced using a piezoelectric transducer. A piezoelectric material converts a stress (or pressure) into an electric field, and vice versa. A high-frequency oscillating voltage applied across a piezoelectric material creates a sound wave at the same frequency. Conversely, an oscillating pressure applied to a piezoelectric material creates an oscillating voltage across it. Measurement of this voltage provides a way to record ultrasonic waves. Thus, the same piezoelectric material can serve as both source and detector.
According to an article by Eliza Strickland in IEEE Spectrum, Rothberg’s ultrasound device, called the Butterfly iQ, does away with the piezoelectricity.
Today’s ultrasound systems use piezoelectric crystals, which convert electrical energy into vibrations in the form of ultrasonic waves. A typical system has a display screen on a bulky cart with several wands for imaging at different depths within the body. These machines can cost upwards of $100,000…

Developing the iQ’s chip-based technology was a two-step process. First, Butterfly’s engineers replaced the piezoelectrics with a micromachine that acts like a tiny drum to generate vibrations. Inside this “capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer” (CMUT), an applied voltage moves a membrane to send ultrasonic waves into the body. The waves that bounce back from various body tissues move the membrane and are registered as an electric signal, which creates the image…

Rothberg explains that typical ultrasound systems require separate probes for different clinical applications because the crystals have to be tuned at the time of manufacture to produce the right type of ultrasonic wave for imaging at a particular depth. But the Butterfly iQ can be tuned on the fly. “We have 10,000 of these micromachine transducers on a probe, and that gives us a monster dynamic range,” he says. "We can make them buzz at 1 megahertz if we want to go deep, or 5 megahertz if we want to go shallow.”

The second innovation was to do away with the wiring that connects a typical piezoelectric probe to the electronic controls and displays. Butterfly’s micromachines are attached directly to a semiconductor layer that contains all the necessary amplifiers, signal processors, and so on.
I’m not expert enough to judge how revolutionary this device really is, but it sure sounds cool! One thing I know for certain: when you mix physics with medicine, the results can be astounding. 

The three issues I need to read to catch up with TIME magazine, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
Three issues behind in reading TIME magazine;
I've got my work cut out for me.
Thank goodness Christmas break is approaching, because I’m three issues behind with TIME. I try to keep up, I really do; it’s a challenge. But you never know what you’ll find when you open a new issue. Sometimes you find physics applied to medicine and biology!


Listen to Jonathan Rothberg talk about his ultrasound device, Butterfly iQ.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OHZTUFLIMjU 

Jonathan Rothberg, 2013 National Medal of Technology and Innovation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVV80xl-rNU

Friday, November 15, 2019

Thomas Tenforde (1940-2019) and The Wonders of Magnetism

A photograph of Thomas Tenforde (1940-2019).
Thomas Tenforde (1940-2019).
Photo used with permission of the
Health Physics Society.
Thomas Tenforde—an expert on the interaction of magnetic fields with biological tissue—died this fall.

When I was looking for employment in the late 1980s just after getting my PhD, I had a fellowship opportunity at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington, where Tom Tenforde worked. At that time a debate raged about the health risks of 60-Hz power-line fields, and I recall having much respect for Tenforde’s research on this topic; his work seemed more rigorous and physics-based than many other studies. I ended up taking a position at the National Institutes of Health, but I seriously considered working for Tenforde.

When Russ Hobbie and I discuss power-line electric and magnetic fields in Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, we cite a review by Tenforde.
9.10.2  Power Frequency (50-60 Hz) Fields
9.10.2.1 Fields in Homes are Weak

Much weaker fields in homes are produced by power lines, house wiring, and electrical appliances. Barnes (1995) found average electric fields in air next to the body of about 7 V m−1, with peak values of 200 V m−1. (We will find that since the body is a conductor, the fields within the body are much less.) Average residential magnetic fields are about 0.1 μT, with peaks up to four times as large. Within the body they are about the same. Tenforde (1995) reviews both power-line and radio-frequency field intensities.
Electromagnetic Fields: Biological Interactions and Mechanisms, edited by Martin Blank, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
Electromagnetic Fields:
Biological Interactions and Mechanisms
,
edited by Martin Blank.
The reference is to
Tenforde TS (1995) Spectrum and intensity of environmental electromagnetic fields from natural and man-made sources. In: Blank M (ed.) Electromagnetic Fields: Biological Interactions and Mechanisms. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 13–35.
An obituary for Tenforde published online by the Health Physics Society begins
Thomas S. Tenforde died on 6 September 2019 in Berkeley, California, at the age of 78. He was born in Middletown, Ohio, on 15 December 1940. He received his BA degree from Harvard University with a major in physics. He earned a PhD in biophysics at the University of California at Berkeley. He was a senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory from 1969 to 1988. He moved to Richland, Washington, where he was a fellow at Battelle's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory from 1988 to 2002. His special areas of research included health effects of nonionizing radiation and the role of radionuclides for medical applications. He received the dArsonval Medal from the Bioelectromagnetics Society in 2001. He also received awards from the US Department of Energy in 2000 and the Federal Laboratory Consortium in 2001 for leading the development of 90Y as a therapeutic medical isotope that is used worldwide for the treatment of cancer and other medical disorders...
A photograph of Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval (1851-1940).
Jacques-Arsène dArsonval
(1851-1940).
Photo from Wikipedia.
The d’Arsonval Medal is the most prestigious award bestowed by the Bioelectromagnetics Society. It’s named after French physician and physicist Jacques-Arsène d’Arsonval, a pioneer in electrophysiology. (Two scientists mentioned in last week's postEleanor Adair and Ken Foster—also were awarded the d'Arsonval Medal.) Tenforde’s award announcement states
Thomas S. Tenforde, senior chief scientist in the environmental technology division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Wash., will receive the eighth dArsonval Award, presented by the Bioelectromagnetics Society to recognize “extraordinary accomplishment within the discipline of bioelectromagnetics.” This award recognizes Tenforde’s extensive research on dosimetry and biophysical interaction of static and low-frequency electric and magnetic fields with living systems….
Tenforde’s strong interest in bioelectromagnetics began with the use of static electric fields for single-cell micro-electrophoresis during his doctoral thesis work. In the 1970s and 1980s at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory he conducted a broad range of biological studies on static and ELF [extremely low frequency] magnetic fields. Tom and his colleagues at the Donner Laboratory at the University of California developed what soon became the foremost program investigating the biological effects of strong static magnetic fields. These studies looked at the cardiovascular system, the nervous system, thermoregulation, circadian rhythmicity, lipid bilayer membrane permeability, and animal behavior.
This work initially began because of concerns about human exposure to strong magnetic fields near thermonuclear fusion reactors, magneto-hydrodynamic power systems, and high-energy physics facilities such as cyclotrons and bubble chambers. Tom and his colleagues played a key role in the evaluation of potential risks to patients and workers from MRI facilities…

As manager of PNNL’s Hanford Radioisotopes Program, Tenforde supervised work which produced the medical isotope yttrium-90, which is now being used worldwide to treat cancer…
Tenforde provides yet another example of a scientist who made the transition from physics to biology. His career indicates how working at this interface can lead to new insights and great accomplishments. His interest in how magnetic fields affect animals overlaps with my work on the magnetic field of a nerve axon, magnetic stimulation and magnetoacoustic imaging. I think he would have enjoyed Chapter 8 of Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, about biomagnetism.

I will let Tenforde have the last word. In an article based on his speech accepting the d’Arsonval Medal (Bioelectromagnetics, Volume 24, Pages 3-11, 2003), he wrote
A recurring theme of my work during the past 25 years has been the beneficial uses of magnetism in advancing our scientific knowledge of living systems, and hence I have chosen the title, “The Wonders of Magnetism.”

Friday, November 8, 2019

A Town Hall About The Health Risks of 5G Cell Phone Technology

A photograph of the 5G Town Hall  Rochester, Michigan  November 7, 2019.
5G Town Hall
Rochester, Michigan
November 7, 2019.
Yesterday I participated in a town hall meeting in Rochester, Michigan to discuss the new 5G cell phone technology. I was invited to attend in part because of my contributions to the book Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology, which discusses the health risks of electromagnetic fields.

When preparing for the event, I created a list of frequently asked questions (well, these were the questions I thought people would ask). Not wanting to waste this effort, I reproduce my FAQ below.

The event was....interesting. I was impressed by the passion of these concerned citizens, who packed a large room on a cold Thursday evening and for over two hours asked questions and voiced their opinions (mostly voiced their opinions). I’ve taught plenty of apathetic 20-something-year-olds who don’t engage with the lecture or challenge what I say, so I found this feisty crowd refreshing. Unfortunately, I was not convinced by their claims of dire health effects from 5G technology, and they were not convinced by me. The most disturbing moment was when I said something along the lines of “if you want to know more about the risks of cancer, consult the National Cancer Institute” and the response was a chorus of “No, No, No!” Goodness, if we can’t trust the National Cancer Institute to understand cancer, who can we trust? But no one threw a tomato at me, so I’ll call the evening a success. The FAQ below summarizes my view on this matter.

FAQ: 5G Cell Phone Health Effects

What is 5G?

5G is the fifth generation of technology for cell phones. It uses higher frequencies of electromagnetic radiation than 4G technology (up to 300 GHz, with a wave length of 1 mm).


What does IPMB say about the health risks from cell phones?

Section 9.10.5 of Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology addresses possible health risks from microwaves, mobile phones, and wi-fi. Russ Hobbie and I cite a 2005 review by John Moulder, Ken Foster, and their colleagues, which concludes that “Overall, a weight-of-evidence evaluation shows that the current evidence for a causal association between cancer and exposure to RF [radiofrequency] energy is weak and unconvincing.” We also cite “an exhaustive (390 page) report…by the International Committee on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (Vecchia et al. 2009)” that reaches a similar conclusion. Next we write that “Sheppard et al. (2008) evaluated all the proposed mechanisms for radio-frequency interactions with biological molecules and processes…[and conclude that] the principal mechanism for biological effects, and the only well-established mechanism, is the heating of tissues.” Finally, “Foster and Moulder (2013) reviewed the current state of research [on the health effects of wi-fi, and conclude that the evidence provides] ‘no basis to anticipate any biological effects.’”

The 2013 review by Foster and Moulder summarizes my opinion on this topic.
“Impossibility” arguments are difficult to sustain in biology; but the lack of a generally-accepted mechanism by which low-level (below ICNIRP and IEEE limits) RF fields in the GHz frequency range could produce biological effects, after many years of sustained efforts to uncover such mechanisms, makes it increasingly unlikely that any mechanism will be found.

What have Foster and Moulder said lately about health risks from wi-fi?

Ken Foster and John Moulder are experts on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the body. They are skeptical about many claims of health risks caused by power-line, cell-phone, and wi-fi radiation. Both are now emeritus professors; Foster at the University of Pennsylvania and Moulder at the University of Wisconsin. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology cites Foster and Moulder several times, but the 5th edition of IPMB was published in 2015. What have they said lately?

Foster published a post two months ago in a Scientific American blog looking specifically at 5G technology and health risks. His conclusion: “So far, at least, there’s little evidence of danger.”

The most interesting development is a critique of Foster and Moulder’s 2013 review by Martin Pall, an emeritus professor at Washington State University. He concludes that “there are seven repeatedly found Wi-Fi effects which have also been shown to be caused by other similar EMF [electromagnetic field] exposures. Each of the seven should be considered, therefore, as established effects of Wi-Fi.” Pall’s central hypothesis is that cell phone radiation affects calcium ion channels, which if true could trigger a cascade of biological effects. In a rebuttal, Foster and Moulder (2018) write
Pall (2018) criticizes our 5-year-old review of studies related to Wi-Fi and health (Foster and Moulder 2013). We respond to his critique, and also note weaknesses in his selection and interpretation of studies on biological and health effects of Wi-Fi type signals...

Having examined the additional papers that Pall cites, we reaffirm our earlier conclusion: a number of studies have reported bioeffects of Wi-Fi exposures, but technical limitations make many of them difficult to interpret and artifacts cannot be excluded. We are not aware of any health-agency warnings about health risks of Wi-Fi technology. Despite some level of public controversy and an ongoing stream of reports of highly variable quality of biological effects of RF energy (e.g. articles in a recent special issue of the Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy, Volume 75, 2016) health agencies consistently conclude that there are no proven hazards from exposure to RF fields within current exposure limits (even as they consistently call for more research).
My advice is to read the review, the critique, and the rebuttal, and then draw your own conclusion. You may find many of the technical details difficult to understand (I do), but you will better appreciate the complexity if these issues, and the difficulty in drawing definite conclusions from imperfect data. I don’t agree with Pall’s claims.

What does Bob Park have to say about the health risks from cell phones?

Robert Park is an emeritus professor of physics at the University of Maryland, and was the director of public information at the Washington office of the American Physical Society. He is the author of Voodoo Science, and wrote a weekly column titled “What’s New” debunking pseudoscience. His health has not allowed him to contribute to the recent discussion about the risks of cell phones and 5G technology (and, oh, how we miss him). Here’s what he wrote in “What’s New” on Sunday, May 6, 2012.
1. ALBERT WHO? DEAD PHYSICIST DISPELS MOBILE-PHONE MYTH. According to news reports last week: "There is still no evidence of harm to health from mobile-phone technologies," or other wireless devices such as Wi-Fi. A study for the UK's Health Protection Agency (HPA) is said to be the most complete review yet and new evidence is still being examined, according to Professor Anthony Swerdlow of the Institute of Cancer Research, who chaired the study. I once had a rubber stamp made that said: “More research is needed,” since its found at the end of every science paper. The unanswered question is why anyone thought microwave radiation might be a cancer agent in the first place? Cancer is linked to the formation of mutant strands of DNA. More than 100 years ago in his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein predicted an abrupt threshold for photoemission at about 5 eV, just above the lovely blue limit of the visible spectrum, demonstrating wave-particle duality. He was awarded the 1923 Physics Nobel Prize [actually, Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921, and Robert Millikan received it in 1923, in part for his experimental work on the photoelectric effect]. Its also the threshold for the emission of invisible ultraviolet radiation that causes hideous skin cancers. The cancer threshold, is therefore, 1 million times higher than the microwaves band. The same enormous mistake was made in the 1980s when epidemiologists falsely warned that exposure to power line emission can cause cancer. Power lines abruptly stopped causing cancer in 1997 after the U.S. National Cancer Institute conducted a better study. Its painful to witness this sad history being replayed with mobile-phone radiation. Aside: My apologies to regular readers who have heard this 20 times before, but it has not gotten through to everyone.
Park’s argument remains as true now as eight years ago, except that a 300 GHz photon has an energy of one-thousandth of an electron volt, which is “only” a few thousand times less than the threshold for photoemission or UV skin cancer (and is about 25 times smaller than thermal energy, 0.025 eV). The possibility of DNA damage—the underlying cause of cancer—remains extraordinarily remote, but not as ridiculously remote as it was for cell phone technology ten years ago.


Electromagnetic radiation is considered a possible carcinogen. What’s that mean?

Something that is “possibly carcinogenic to humans” doesn’t probably cause cancer. It probably doesn’t cause cancer, but we can’t say for certain. RF radiation was not placed into two more threatening categories: “probably carcinogenic to humans” and “carcinogenic to humans.”

The website Science-Based Medicine states that
Despite the negative evidence to date, in 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified EMF [low-frequency electromagnetic fields] as a “possible” carcinogen. They have a low threshold for this category, which is rather long. It requires limited evidence of carcinogenic potential in humans and inadequate evidence in animals. This is the, “Probably should do more research just to be sure, but basically don’t worry about it,” category.

Who was Eleanor Adair, and what did she think about microwaves?


I have written about Eleanor Adair before in this blog. She was a leading expert on the interaction of microwaves with biological tissue, and was skeptical of any health hazards claims. A New York Times interview included this exchange:
Q. If I were to say to people, “Hey there’s this really cool idea: Why heat your whole house when you could use microwaves to heat yourself?” they would say: “You’ve got to be kidding. Don’t you know that microwaves are dangerous? They can even cause cancer.” What do you say to people who respond like that?

 A. I try to educate them in exactly what these fields are. That they are part of the full electromagnetic spectrum that goes all the way from the radio frequency and microwave bands, through infrared, ultraviolet, the gamma rays and all that.

And the difference between the ionizing X-ray, gamma ray region and the microwave frequency is in the quantum energy. The lower you get in frequency the lower you get in quantum energy and the less it can do to the cells in your body.

If you have a really high quantum energy such as your X-rays and ionizing-radiation region of the spectrum, this energy is high enough that it can bump electrons out of the orbit in your cells and it can create serious changes in the cells of your body such that they can turn into cancers and various other things that are not good for you.

But down where we are working, in the microwave band, you are millions of times lower in frequency and there the quantum energy is so low that they can’t do any damage to the cells whatsoever. And most people don’t realize this.

Somehow, something is missing in their basic science education, which is something I keep trying to push. Learn the spectrum. Learn that you’re in far worse shape if you lie out on the beach in the middle of summer and you soak up that ultraviolet radiation than you are if you use your cell phone.

Any new data about health effects of electromagnetic fields in the last few years?


A recent article examining the “Occupational Exposure to High-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields and Brain Tumor Risk in the INTEROCC Study: An Individualized Assessment Approach,” (Vila et al., 2018) provides the following highlights
• Evidence on health effects of long-term occupational exposure to high-frequency EMF remains weak
• Individualized cumulative occupational RF [radiofrequency, 10 MHz–300 GHz] and IF [intermediate frequency, 3 kHz–10 MHz] exposure indices were assigned to study subjects
• No clear associations with RF or IF EMF and glioma or meningioma risk were observed
• The possible role of RF magnetic fields on brain tumor promotion/progression should be further investigated.
As Bob Park said, everyone supports doing additional research (as do I). But I don’t see a lot to be worried about here.


Bill Curry concluded that 5G technology “is likely to be a serious health hazard.” Well?


I’ve written about physicist Bill Curry and his claims previously in this blog. That post begins
A recent article by William Broad in the New York Times—titled “The 5G Health Hazard That Isn’t”—tells the sad story of how unfounded fears of radiofrequency radiation were stoked by one mistaken scientist.

What is electromagnetic hypersensitivity?


Some people claim they’re extremely sensitive to weak electromagnetic fields. The SkepDoc Harriet Hall wrote a blog post titled “Myths About Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity.” She begins
As if we didn’t have enough things to worry about already, now we are being told to fear our toasters. A typical headline trumpets “The Effects of Invisible Waves.” We are increasingly exposed to electromagnetic radiation from cell phones, cell phone towers, wireless Internet routers, cordless phones, and power lines. Other sources ... are our household appliances: TVs, hairdryers, light bulbs, and yes, your trusty toaster. These invisible villains are said to lead to a variety of symptoms, including poor sleep, fatigue, heart palpitations, headache, nausea, dizziness, memory impairment, prickling and burning sensations, along with skin rashes. They’ve even been blamed for depression, anxiety, colds, digestive disorders, and chronic pain. It’s called electromagnetic hypersensitivity or EHS.
Hall concludes
The symptoms described by “electromagnetic hypersensitivity” sufferers can be severe and are sometimes disabling. However, it has proved difficult to show under blind conditions that exposure to EMF can trigger these symptoms. This suggests that “electromagnetic hypersensitivity” is unrelated to the presence of EMF.
I recommend you read the entire article.


IPMB cited a point-counterpoint article that suggests cell phones are dangerous. True?


Point-counterpoint articles appear every month in the journal Medical Physics. They are a wonderful teaching tool, allowing students to consider and discuss questions at the cutting edge of medical physics. The one cited in Chapter 9 of IPMB is by Khurana, Moulder, and Orton (2008), titled “There is Currently Enough Evidence and Technology Available to Warrant Taking Immediate Steps to Reduce Exposure of Consumers to Cell-Phone-Related Electromagnetic Radiation.” Every point-counterpoint article pits one researcher against another, arguing opposing sides of the claim made in the article title. In this case, Vini Khurana supports the proposition, and John Moulder opposes it; Colin Orton is the moderator. I encourage you to read the article for yourself. I agree with Moulder’s conclusion that
weak epidemiological evidence of an association of mobile phone use with brain cancer incidence, when combined with the biophysical implausibility of a causal link and the strongly unsupportive animal studies, does not support the case that regulation of mobile phone use is urgently needed.

Last year I saw an article that says 5G cell phone radiation is unsafe! What’s up?


The Nation published an article titled “How Big Wireless Made Us Think That Cell Phones Are Safe: A Special Investigation. The Disinformation Campaign—and Massive Radiation Increase—Behind the 5G Rollout,” by Mark Hertsgaard and Mark Dowie. David Gorski published a critique of this article for the website Science-Based Medicine. He writes
The Nation indulges in fear mongering about cell phones and cancer An article published last week in The Nation likens wireless telephone companies to tobacco and fossil fuel episodes in their tactics of spreading fear, misinformation, and doubt regarding the science of cell phone radiation and health. To produce this narrative, the investigation’s authors rely on unreliable sources and cherry pick scientific studies, ignoring the scientific consensus that cell phone radiation almost certainly doesn’t cause cancer, all the while disingenuously claiming that they aren’t taking a position on the health effects of radio waves.
Read The Nation article and the critique and decide for yourself. At the least, you’ll learn how physics can be applied to medicine and biology.


What’s the bottom line regarding the risk of cancer from 5G cell phones?


Electromagnetic radiation consists of packets of energy called photons. The energy of a photon increases with the frequency of the radiation. Cancer is caused when DNA is damaged by very-high-frequency photons, such as x-rays (ionizing radiation). If the frequency is in the range of 300 GHz, the energy of a photon is far too small to disrupt bonds in DNA. It is, in fact, smaller than the energies associated with thermal motion of molecules. So, photons associated with 300 GHz radiation cannot cause cancer by damaging DNA. Of course, you could have a whole lot of 300 GHz photons, and they might pool their effort and together have enough energy to break bonds. We have a word for that: heat. 300 GHz radiation can heat tissue, but such heating is well understood and easily measured; Cell phone radiation is too weak to cause a significant temperature increase. So, we are left with no plausible mechanism for health risks from cell phone radiation. Perhaps some secondary effect could make your body less able to fight off cancer once it is induced by other mechanisms, but no one really knows how that might occur. Moreover, the epidemiological evidence suggests there is little risk. Cell phone use has increased dramatically since the turn of the century, but the incidence of brain cancer hasn’t increased. The National Cancer Institute says “The only consistently recognized biological effect of radiofrequency radiation in humans is heating... There are no other clearly established effects on the human body from radiofrequency radiation.” I wouldn’t say it’s impossible that cell phones put you at risk for cancer, but it’s unlikely. In my opinion, it’s exceedingly unlikely. We have many other things to worry about instead.


References


Foster KR, Moulder JE (2013) “Wi-Fi and Health: Review of Current Status of Research,” Health Physics, Volume 105, Pages 561-575.

Foster KR, Moulder JE (2018) “Response to Pall, ‘Wi-Fi is an Important Threat to Human Health’,Environmental Research, Volume 445-447, Pages 445-447.

Khurana VG, Moulder JE, Orton CG (2008) “There is Currently Enough Evidence and Technology Available to Warrant Taking Immediate Steps to Reduce Exposure of Consumers to Cell-Phone-Related Electromagnetic Radiation,” Medical Physics, Volume 35, Pages 5203-5206.

Moulder JE, Foster KR, Erdreich LS, McNamee JP (2005) “Mobile Phones, Mobile Phone Base Stations and Cancer: A Review,” International Journal of Radiation Biology, Volume 81, Pages 189-203.

Pall ML (2018) “Wi-fi is an Important Threat to Human Health,” Environmental Research, Volume 164, Pages 405-416.

Sheppard AR, Swicord ML, Balzano Q (2008) “Quantitative evaluation of mechanisms of radiofrequency interactions with biological molecules and processes,” Health Physics, Volume 95, Pages 365-396.

Vecchia P, Matthes R, Ziegelberger G, Lin J, Saunders R, Swerdlow A (2009) “Exposure to High Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, Biological Effects and Health Consequences (100 kHz – 300 GHz),” Munich: International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection.

Vila, J, Turner MC, Gracia-Lavedan E, Figuerola J, Bowman JD, Kincl L, Richardson L, Benke G, Hours M, Krewski D, McLean D, Parent M-E, Sadetzki S, Schlaefer K, Schlehofer B, Schuz J, Siemiatycki J, Tongeren M, Cardis, E (2018) Occupational exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic fields and brain tumor risk in the INTEROCC study: An individualized assessment approach. Environment International, Volume 119, Pages 353-365.

Friday, November 1, 2019

Perrin, Einstein, and Avogadro's Number

Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality,  by Jean Perrin (1910),  translated by Frederick Soddy, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality,
by Jean Perrin (1910),
translated by Frederick Soddy.
Chapter 4 of Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology includes a homework exercise (Problem 12) about Jean Perrin’s experiment to determine Avogadro’s number. Perrin measured the equilibrium distribution of small particles suspended in water as a function of height, fit his data to a Boltzmann factor to determine the Boltzmann constant, and then calculated Avogadro’s number via the gas constant. I like that homework problem because it combines a mini history lesson with a physics exercise, and the numbers aren’t made up; they came from Perrin’s book Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality.

Perrin didn’t use just one method to determine Avogadro’s number; he used several. Below I present a new homework problem describing another technique of Perrin’s. Again I draw data from his book.
Section 4.6

Problem 12 ½. Jean Perrin used a relationship between diffusion and viscosity to determine Avogadro’s number. He recorded the variance of the displacement, σ2, as a function of time, t, for small particles suspended in water. The particles had a radius, a, of 0.212 μm, and the viscosity of water, η, was 0.0012 N s/m2 at a temperature, T, of 17 °C.

(a) Use the data below and Eq. 4.77 to estimate the diffusion constant, D, of the particles.
         t  (s)    σ2  (μm2)
          30       45
          60       86.5
          90     140
        120     195
Either use the least squares method of Sec. 11.1 to fit the data, or estimate an average value of D by trial and error.
(b) Use the Einstein relationship, Eq. 4.23, to determine Boltzmann’s constant, kB, from the diffusion constant found in part (a).

(c) Use your result from part (b), along with the gas constant, R, and Eq. 3.31, to calculate Avogadro’s number, NA. Your result may not be the same as the currently accepted value of NA, but it should be close.
For those of you who don’t have your copy of IPMB at your side, Eq. 4.77 is
A mathematical expression relating the variance in space to time and the diffusion constant.
Eq. 4.23 is
A mathematical expression relating the diffusion constant to the temperature, viscosity, and radius.
and Eq. 3.31 is

Avogadro's number times Boltzmann's constant equals the gas constant.

‘Subtle is the Lord...’: The Science and Life of Albert Einstein, by Abraham Pais, superimposed on Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology.
‘Subtle is the Lord...’:
The Science and Life
of Albert Einstein,
by Abraham Pais.
Although Perrin was the first to perform this experiment, Albert Einstein initially proposed the idea during his miraculous year, 1905. The story behind this method can be found in Abraham Pais’s magnificent biography ‘Subtle is the Lord…’. Pais writes
One never ceases to experience surprise at this result, which seems, as it were, to come out of nowhere: prepare a set of small spheres which are nevertheless huge compared with simple molecules, use a stopwatch and a microscope, and find Avogadro’s number.
During the first decade of the twentieth century, the research by Perrin and Einstein confirmed the existence of atoms.

I’ll give Perrin the last word by quoting from the conclusion of Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality.
I think it is impossible that a mind, free from all preconception, can reflect upon the extreme diversity of phenomena which thus converge to the same result, without experiencing a very strong impression, and I think that it will henceforth be difficult to defend by rational arguments a hostile attitude to molecular hypotheses.

Friday, October 25, 2019

One Hundred Books About Physics for Medicine and Biology

When I was in high school, I became intrigued by St. John’s College and their Great Books program. I had their brochure, which included a list of the books to read each year; the most famous works of western civilization.

In the spirit of St. John’s, below I list one hundred Great Books about physics applied to medicine and biology. Read all these and you will have obtained a liberal education in biological and medical physics. One book you won’t find on this list is Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. I’m going to assume you’ve already read IPMB and my goal is to suggest books to supplement it.

Where to begin? I’ll assume you have taken a year of physics and a year of calculus. Once you have these prerequisites, start reading.
  1. Powers of Ten. First an overview that’s easy and fun. It provides an intuitive feel for the relative sizes of things. 
  2. The Machinery of Life. Although I’m assuming you’ve studied some physics and math, I’m not assuming you have much background in biology. This book provides a gentle introduction to biochemistry. Plus, it has those wonderful drawings by David Goodsell
  3. The Art of Insight in Science and Engineering. Remember: We seek insight, not just facts.
  4. Physical Models of Living Systems. IPMB is about modeling in medicine and biology. Philip Nelson’s little book gets us started building models. 
  5. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. I know, I know...you’ve already studied introductory physics, but The Feynman Lectures are special. You don’t want to miss them, and they contain some biology too.
  6. Air and Water. Now we get to our main topic: physics applied to biology. Mark Denny’s book covers many topics found in the first half of IPMB.
  7. Physics with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology. This classic three-volume set covers much of the same ground as IPMB.
  8. The Double Helix. To further strengthen your background in biology, read James Watson’s first-person account of how he and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA. It’s a required text for any student of science, and is an easy read.
  9. The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology. After warming up with The Double Helix, it’s time to dig deeper into the history and ideas of modern biology. Physicists play a large role in this book, and it’s wonderfully written.
  10. Biomechanics of Human Motion. Chapter 1 in IPMB covers statics applied to the bones and muscles of the body. It’s our first book that focuses in detail on a specific topic.
  11. Structures, or Why Things Don’t Fall Down. A delightful book about mechanics, including some biomechanical examples. It’s one of the most enjoyable books on this list. Don’t miss the sequel, The New Science of Strong Materials.
  12. Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissue. We need a book about biomechanics that treats tissue as a continuous medium. YC Fung’s textbook fills that niche.
  13. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. This book is long and technical, and may contain more material than you really need to know. Nevertheless, it’s a great place to learn elasticity. I’m sure there are more modern books that you may prefer. Skip if you’re in a hurry.
  14. The Physics of Scuba Diving. An easy read about how hydrostatics impacts divers.
  15. Life in Moving Fluids. Fluid dynamics is one of those topics that’s critical to life, but is often skipped in introductory physics classes. This book by Steven Vogel provides an excellent introduction to the field of biological fluid dynamics.
  16. Vital Circuits. Another book by Vogel, which focuses on the fluid dynamics of the circulatory system. 
  17. Boundary Layer Theory. This large tome may be too advanced for the list, but I learned a lot from it. Skip if you need to move along quickly.
  18. Textbook of Medical Physiology. We need to get serious about learning physiology. This classic text is by Arthur Guyton, but any good physiology textbook will do. Not much physics here. The book contains more biology than we need, but physiology is too important to skip.
  19. e, The Story of a Number. A gentle introduction into calculus and differential equations, and a great history of the exponential function, the topic of IPMB’s second chapter.
  20. Quick Calculus. Yes, you already studied calculus. But we are about to get more mathematical, and this book will help you brush up on math you may have forgotten. If you don’t need it, move on. 
  21. Used Math. Finish your math review with this outline of mathematics essential for college physics.
  22. The Essential Exponential. It’s time to focus specifically on the exponential function and its properties, so important in biology and medicine.
  23. A Change of Heart. Chapter 2 of IPMB mentions the Framingham heart study. Read the story behind the project.
  24. On Being the Right Size. This is really an essay, but indulge me while I include it here among the books. J. B. S. Haldane is too fascinating of a writer to miss.
  25. Scaling: Why is Animal Size so Important? Knut Schmidt-Nielsen’s study of scaling, a key topic in Chapter 2 of IPMB.
  26. Lady Luck. Chapter 3 of IPMB requires us to know some probability, and Warren Weaver’s book is an engaging introduction.
  27. Statistical Physics. The first few sections of Chapter 3 in IPMB develop the ideas of statistical physics in a way reminiscent of Frederick Reif’s volume in the Berkeley Physics Course.
  28. An Introduction to Thermal Physics. For those who want a more traditional approach to thermodynamics, I recommend Daniel Schroeder’s textbook.
  29. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Biological thermodynamics overlaps with biochemistry. Any good biochemistry book will do. They all contain more detail than you need, but a biological physicist must know some biochemistry.
  30. The Second Law. This delightful book by Peter Atkins will fill a hole in IPMB: a penetrating discussion about the second law of thermodynamics.
  31. Div Grad Curl and All That. Chapter 4 of IPMB uses vector calculus, and there is no better introduction to the topic.
  32. Random Walks in Biology. Howard Berg’s wonderful little book about diffusion.
  33. The Mathematics of Diffusion. John Crank’s intimidating giant tome about diffusion. Mathephobes shouldn’t bother with it; Mathephiles shouldn’t miss it.
  34. Conduction of Heat in Solids. Like the book by Crank, this ponderous textbook by Horatio Carslaw and John Jaeger presents all you ever want to know about solving the heat equation (also known as the diffusion equation).
  35. How Animals Work. Another delightful book by Schmidt-Nielsen that considers comparative physiology, and topics in Chapter 5 of IPMB such as countercurrent heat exchange.
  36. The Nuts and Bolts of Life. A colorful book about the first dialysis machine.
  37. The Biomedical Engineering Handbook. Don’t read this encyclopedia-like multi-volume handbook in one sitting. Yet it provides dozens of examples of how physics is applied to medicine. Ask your library to buy this set and the next one.
  38. Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation. The title should be Case Studies: How Physics is Applied to Medicine.
  39. Plant Physics. IPMB doesn’t say much about plants, but physics impacts botany as well as zoology.
  40. Nerve, Muscle, and Synapse. Bernard Katz’s excellent, if somewhat dated, introduction to all the electrophysiology you need for Chapter 6 of IPMB.
  41. The Conduction of the Nervous Impulse. Read about the Hodgkin-Huxley model from the pen of Alan Hodgkin himself.
  42. From Neuron to Brain. A modern introduction to neuroscience.
  43. Electricity and Magnetism. This book by Ed Purcell is part of the Berkeley Physics Course. The first of three physics books about electricity and magnetism.
  44. Introduction to Electrodyamics. David Griffiths’s text competes with Purcell’s for my favorite electricity and magnetism book.
  45. Classical Electrodynamics. John David Jackson’s famous graduate-level physics text may be more electricity and magnetism than you want, but how could I leave it off the list?
  46. Galvani’s Spark. A history of neurophysiology.
  47. Shattered Nerves. A fascinating look at using electrical stimulation to compensate for neural injury. A history of neural prostheses.
  48. Bioelectricity: A Quantitative Approach. The first, and probably easiest, of three bioelectricity textbooks.
  49. Bioelectromagnetism. Jaakko Malmivuo and Robert Plonsey’s big book about bioelectricity.
  50. Bioelectricity and Biomagnetism. Another big tome. Ramesh Gulrajani’s alternative to Malmivuo and Plonsey.
  51. The Art of Electronics. In order to understand voltage clamping and other electrophysiological methods, you need to know some electronics. This book is my favorite introduction to the topic. 
  52. Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables. Chapter 6 contains lots of mathematics, and the next three books are references you may want. This Schaum’s Outline contains most of the math you’ll ever need. It’s cheap, light, and easy to use. Keep it handy.
  53. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs and Mathematical Tables. No one would sit down and read this handbook straight through, but “Abramowitz and Stegun” is invaluable as a reference.
  54. Table of Integrals, Series, and Products. “Gradshteyn and Ryzhik” is the best integral table ever. Let the library buy it, but have them keep it in the reference section so you can find it quickly. 
  55. Numerical Recipes. If you want to solve the equations of the Hodgkin-Huxley model, you need to program a computer. This book is great for finding the needed numerical methods.
  56. Numerical Methods that Work. Forman Acton’s book is more chatty than Numerical Recipes, but full of insight.
  57. Machines in our Hearts. Chapter 7 of IPMB examines the heart. Read this history of pacemakers and defibrillators to put it all in perspective.
  58. Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. This multi-author, multi-edition work contains everything you always wanted to know about the electrical properties of the heart, but were afraid to ask.
  59. Cardiac Bioelectric Therapy. Another multi-author collection, with several excellent chapters about the bidomain model.
  60. When Time Breaks Down. Art Winfree’s unique analysis of the electrical properties of the heart.
  61. Electric Fields of the Brain. Paul Nunez’s book about the electroencephalogram from the perspective of a physicist.
  62. Iron, Nature’s Universal Element. Why people need iron and animals make magnets.
  63. The Spark of Life. An accessible introduction to electrophysiology and ion channel diseases.
  64. Ion Channels of Excitable Membranes. The definitive textbook about ion channels, by Bertil Hille.
  65. Voodoo Science. Some of the topics in Section 9.10 of IPMB about possible effects of weak electric and magnetic fields make me yearn for this hard-hitting book by Bob Park.
  66. Dynamics: The Geometry of Behavior. Chapter 10 of IPMB covers nonlinear dynamics. This beautiful book introduces dynamics using pictures.
  67. From Clocks to Chaos. Leon Glass and Michael Mackey introduce the idea of a dynamical disease.
  68. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos. Steven Strogatz’s classic; my favorite book about nonlinear dynamics.
  69. Mathematical Physiology. An award-winning textbook about applying math to biology.
  70. Mathematical Biology. Another big fine textbook for the mathematically inclined.
  71. The Geometry of Biological Time. A quirky book by Art Winfree, more wide-ranging than When Time Breaks Down.
  72. Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences. Many of the ideas about least squares fitting discussed in Chapter 11 of IPMB are related to analyzing noisy data.
  73. The Fourier Transform and its Applications. The Fourier transform is the most important concept in Chapter 11. Ronald Bracewell’s book is a great place to learn about it.
  74. Introduction to Membrane Noise. Louis DeFelice’s book explains how to deal with noise.
  75. Naked to the Bone. A historical survey of medical imaging.
  76. Medical Imaging Physics. A book by William Hendee and E Russell Ritenour, at a level similar to IPMB but dedicated entirely to imaging. Also see its partner, Hendee's Radiation Therapy Physics.
  77. Foundations of Medical Imaging. A big, technical book about imaging.
  78. Theoretical Acoustics. Not much biology here, but a definitive survey of acoustics to back up Chapter 13 of IPMB.
  79. Physics of the Body. This book discusses many topics, including hearing.
  80. Musicophilia. An extraordinary book by Oliver Sacks about the neuroscience of hearing.
  81. Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles. My choice for a modern physics textbook, with much information about the interaction of light with matter.
  82. The First Steps in Seeing. Robert Rodieck’s incredible book about the physics of vision.
  83. The Optics of Life. This masterpiece by Sonke Johnsen walks you through optics, examining all the biological applications. A great supplement to Chapter 14 of IPMB.
  84. From Photon to Neuron. A study of light, imaging, and vision.
  85. Introduction to Physics in Modern Medicine. Suzanne Amador Kane’s nice introduction to physics applied to medicine, covering many topics in the last half of IPMB.
  86. Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. Frank Herbert Attix wrote the definitive textbook about how x-rays interact with tissue, a topic covered in Chapter 15 of IPMB.
  87. Radiobiology for the Radiologist. The go-to reference for how cells and tissues respond to radiation.
  88. Molecular Biology of the Cell. The classic textbook of cell biology.
  89. Radiation Oncology: A Physicists Eye View. Explains how to treat cancer using radiation.
  90. The Physics of Radiation Therapy. Faiz Khan’s in-depth study of radiation therapy.
  91. The Atomic Nucleus. An classic about nuclear physics, providing background for Chapter 17 of IPMB. You could replace it with one of many modern nuclear physics textbooks.
  92. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. A fascinating study of how a women treated for cancer using radioactivity ended up providing science with an immortal cell line.
  93. Strange Glow. How radiation impacts society.
  94. The Radium Girls. This book is about women poisoned by radium-containing paint (lip, dip, paint). It reminds us why we study medical physics.
  95. Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Properties and Sequence Design. All you need to know about MRI.
  96. Principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Microscopy. Paul Callaghan’s view of magnetic resonance imaging.
  97. Echo Planar Imaging. Advanced MRI techniques.
  98. Biological Physics. IPMB is not strong in covering physics applied to cellular and molecular biology. Here are three great books to fill that gap.
  99. Cell Biology by the Numbers. I love the quantitative approach to biology.
  100. Physical Biology of the Cell. How physicists view biology. 
Don’t see your favorite listed? Here’s my call to action: Add your recommendations to the comments below.

I didn’t end up going to St. John’s College and studying the Great Books. Instead, I attended a more traditional school, the University of Kansas. I loved KU, and I have no regrets. But sometimes I wonder...